Fig. 3

Cu and cancer. Cu directly binds to MEK1, CK2, and ULK1, thereby activating or enhancing signaling pathways associated with tumor growth. Cu activates HIF-1α and NF-κB, thus facilitating the expression of pro-angiogenic factors. Cu promotes the secretion of angiogenic molecules. Cu promotes tumor metastasis by binding to SPARC, LOX, and MEMO1. Cu modulates tumorigenesis-associated chronic inflammation through the IL-17–STEAP4–XIAP axis. Cu also upregulates the expression of PD-L1, consequently inhibiting the efficacy of tumor immunotherapy