Table 1 Immunotherapy targeting DCs in sepsis

Modifying functions of DCs

Glucocorticoids

Reducing the production of IL-12 and augmenting the loss of CD8⁺ DCs

[152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160]

Thymosin α1

Enhancing the expression of DCs surface molecules; upregulating the expression of TLR2 and TLR9 on the surface of DCs; promoting the secretion of IL-2, IL-12, and IFN-α

[161,162,163,164,165]

TLR4 antagonist FP7 and Eritoran

Inhibiting cytokines storm and glycolysis reprogramming of DCs

[59, 166,167,168,169,170,171]

TLR2-derived peptides

Upregulating CD14 activity and promoting antigen-mediated DCs maturation; increasing the release of IL-12 and IFN-γ and decreasing the release of TNF-β; promoting the differentiation of T cells toward Th1

[172, 173]

PLA2

Increasing the expression of surface molecules of DCs and promoting DC maturation

[174, 175]

Anti-HMGB1 antibody

Augmenting maturation of DCs and T cell polarization toward Th1

[176,177,178,179,180]

Anti-C5a antibody

Enhancing IL-12⁺ DCs in the abdominal cavity and inhibiting them in peripheral blood and lymph nodes

[181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,191]

Inhibiting cell death of DCs

Silencing of miR-142-p, miR155, and miR-146a/b

Inhibiting the apoptosis of DCs; increasing production of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-12p70, IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ

[192,193,194]

Overexpressed VIM

Inhibiting apoptosis of DCs Inhibiting production of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-2, IL-10, and IFN-α

[195]

Dexmedetomidine

Inhibiting the apoptosis of DCs; downregulating the production of sepsis-induced inflammatory mediators, including TNF-α and IL-6

[196,197,198]